Impacts of Recreation
The Kosciuszko region has been continually increasing in popularity as a location for outdoor recreation in Australia. The area offers the opportunity for a number of winter and summer activities. In the winter the region is used for winter sports such as skiing and snowboarding. In the summer the park offers a range of activities including bushwalking, camping, mountain-biking, and climbing. As well as offering a range of recreational opportunities the area is within a day’s drive of around half Australia’s population (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p. 126) which results in a large number of visitors each year. During the snow free months, the Kosciusko alpine area receives up to 100,000 recreational visitors each year (Hill & Pickering, 2006). As the number of visitors increases the impact of these activities on the environment has also. A large attraction to the region is to experience an area largely unaltered by humans, and as the number of visitors to the region increases more areas are showing evidence of human use. This is causing people to expand out into more areas, expanding the area of human impact (Australian Alps National Parks, 2012).
Impacts of Bushwalking
Pollution
Pollution has become a big issue in the Kosciuszko region because as mentioned by Pickering & Johnston (2003, p.129), all forms of recreation have resulted in an increase in pollution in all regions of this environment as shown in table 1. An obvious and visual form of pollution is litter, but other forms of pollution include human waste, pollution of water ways due to erosion, light pollution, and noise pollution (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p. 131).
Pollution of local water sources, such as the snowy river, has a negative impact on both the environment and humans. People engaging in activities such as bush walking often use natural water sources as a drinking source and pollution of these sources can result in harm, or force participants to carry larger amounts of water due to lack of natural safe water sources. The decrease in water quality due to pollution also affects local wildlife by contaminating their water sources, but can also affect wildlife more indirectly. The erosion caused by recreation can pollute water ways which in return can harm fish with the increased turbidity (Growcock, 2006, p. 21). The eroded material in the water sources can also negatively affect both aquatic flora and fauna with the influxes in nutrients reducing the growth and survival of species (Growcock, 2006, p. 21).
The Kosciuszko region has been continually increasing in popularity as a location for outdoor recreation in Australia. The area offers the opportunity for a number of winter and summer activities. In the winter the region is used for winter sports such as skiing and snowboarding. In the summer the park offers a range of activities including bushwalking, camping, mountain-biking, and climbing. As well as offering a range of recreational opportunities the area is within a day’s drive of around half Australia’s population (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p. 126) which results in a large number of visitors each year. During the snow free months, the Kosciusko alpine area receives up to 100,000 recreational visitors each year (Hill & Pickering, 2006). As the number of visitors increases the impact of these activities on the environment has also. A large attraction to the region is to experience an area largely unaltered by humans, and as the number of visitors to the region increases more areas are showing evidence of human use. This is causing people to expand out into more areas, expanding the area of human impact (Australian Alps National Parks, 2012).
Impacts of Bushwalking
Pollution
Pollution has become a big issue in the Kosciuszko region because as mentioned by Pickering & Johnston (2003, p.129), all forms of recreation have resulted in an increase in pollution in all regions of this environment as shown in table 1. An obvious and visual form of pollution is litter, but other forms of pollution include human waste, pollution of water ways due to erosion, light pollution, and noise pollution (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p. 131).
Pollution of local water sources, such as the snowy river, has a negative impact on both the environment and humans. People engaging in activities such as bush walking often use natural water sources as a drinking source and pollution of these sources can result in harm, or force participants to carry larger amounts of water due to lack of natural safe water sources. The decrease in water quality due to pollution also affects local wildlife by contaminating their water sources, but can also affect wildlife more indirectly. The erosion caused by recreation can pollute water ways which in return can harm fish with the increased turbidity (Growcock, 2006, p. 21). The eroded material in the water sources can also negatively affect both aquatic flora and fauna with the influxes in nutrients reducing the growth and survival of species (Growcock, 2006, p. 21).
Table 1. (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p.129).
Trampling
Bush walking is one of the most popular forms of recreation in the Kosciuszko region. Walking, and activities that are pursued at a low intensity tend to pose little threat the environment, but with the large numbers of visitors each year in the Kosciuszko region trampling becomes more intense and localised (Australian Alps National Parks, 2012, p. 9). The first visible effect of trampling is the death of shrubs and compaction of sphagnum hummocks (Edwards,1977).
In wetter areas, such as some of those in the sub alpine environment, once the ground starts to become bare the track can quickly develop into a quagmire with deep mud. Walkers often try to avoid these muddy areas by walking around them which quickly extends the disturbed area outwards (Edwards,1977).
Drier areas, such as those in the hot dry environment around the Snowy River, are also susceptible to trampling through the soil compaction that occurs. Soil that has been compacted becomes unable to support vegetation because the number of macro-pores in the soil. This limits the air and water movements in the soil that vegetation relies on, as well as becoming smoother and harder making it harder for roots to penetrate the soil (Growcock, 2006, p. 16).
Trampling in the alpine environment of the main range has caused soils to become highly susceptible to erosion in some areas due to the vegetation cover being reduced which provides protection from frost and the freezing of the moisture in the soil (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p. 126).
Prolonged trampling can cause irreversible damage to the directly affected vegetation as well as surrounding vegetation due to the changed water channelling that can erode some areas, while also limiting water to some (Edwards,1977). Vegetation that may retain or return to these effected areas can also be different to the original vegetation. Different species of vegetation have different tolerance levels to disturbance resulting in tougher or fast growing species dominating these disturbed areas (Edwards,1977)
Hardened Tracks
One method used to manage the impact of trampling is to implement hardened tracks in areas that receive a lot of traffic. The aim of the hardened tracks is to localize impact of trampling and avoid unofficial paths being created through the surrounding vegetation. In the Kosciuszko region there are a few different forms of hardened tracks including raised steel mesh walkways, gravel paths, and paved areas (Hill & Pickering, 2006). Each of the different hardened tracks have had different impacts on the vegetation in the area.
The raised steel mesh walkways have the least impact on vegetation. Because the walkways are raised, the vegetation underneath is not trampled which removes the bare ground often associated with waking tracks. The raised walkways have also shown that the richness of native species is not affected, and few exotic species are recorded in the area (Hill & Pickering, 2006).
Gravel and paved tracks, such as those shown in image 1 and 2, have similar impacts on the vegetation. These tracks have resulted in extensive bare patches as well as exotic species in the area (Hill & Pickering, 2006). In the Kosciuszko region there is an estimated 13.7 kilometres of gravel tracks. The road to the summit of Mount Kosciuszko is 7.8 kilometres long 4.29 kilometres squared of non-native vegetation cover (Hill & Pickering, 2006), demonstrating the large impact of the gravel track on native vegetation.
Bush walking is one of the most popular forms of recreation in the Kosciuszko region. Walking, and activities that are pursued at a low intensity tend to pose little threat the environment, but with the large numbers of visitors each year in the Kosciuszko region trampling becomes more intense and localised (Australian Alps National Parks, 2012, p. 9). The first visible effect of trampling is the death of shrubs and compaction of sphagnum hummocks (Edwards,1977).
In wetter areas, such as some of those in the sub alpine environment, once the ground starts to become bare the track can quickly develop into a quagmire with deep mud. Walkers often try to avoid these muddy areas by walking around them which quickly extends the disturbed area outwards (Edwards,1977).
Drier areas, such as those in the hot dry environment around the Snowy River, are also susceptible to trampling through the soil compaction that occurs. Soil that has been compacted becomes unable to support vegetation because the number of macro-pores in the soil. This limits the air and water movements in the soil that vegetation relies on, as well as becoming smoother and harder making it harder for roots to penetrate the soil (Growcock, 2006, p. 16).
Trampling in the alpine environment of the main range has caused soils to become highly susceptible to erosion in some areas due to the vegetation cover being reduced which provides protection from frost and the freezing of the moisture in the soil (Pickering & Johnston, 2003, p. 126).
Prolonged trampling can cause irreversible damage to the directly affected vegetation as well as surrounding vegetation due to the changed water channelling that can erode some areas, while also limiting water to some (Edwards,1977). Vegetation that may retain or return to these effected areas can also be different to the original vegetation. Different species of vegetation have different tolerance levels to disturbance resulting in tougher or fast growing species dominating these disturbed areas (Edwards,1977)
Hardened Tracks
One method used to manage the impact of trampling is to implement hardened tracks in areas that receive a lot of traffic. The aim of the hardened tracks is to localize impact of trampling and avoid unofficial paths being created through the surrounding vegetation. In the Kosciuszko region there are a few different forms of hardened tracks including raised steel mesh walkways, gravel paths, and paved areas (Hill & Pickering, 2006). Each of the different hardened tracks have had different impacts on the vegetation in the area.
The raised steel mesh walkways have the least impact on vegetation. Because the walkways are raised, the vegetation underneath is not trampled which removes the bare ground often associated with waking tracks. The raised walkways have also shown that the richness of native species is not affected, and few exotic species are recorded in the area (Hill & Pickering, 2006).
Gravel and paved tracks, such as those shown in image 1 and 2, have similar impacts on the vegetation. These tracks have resulted in extensive bare patches as well as exotic species in the area (Hill & Pickering, 2006). In the Kosciuszko region there is an estimated 13.7 kilometres of gravel tracks. The road to the summit of Mount Kosciuszko is 7.8 kilometres long 4.29 kilometres squared of non-native vegetation cover (Hill & Pickering, 2006), demonstrating the large impact of the gravel track on native vegetation.
Impacts of other recreational activities
Resort-based Activities
The Kosciuszko region is home to a number of resorts Charlotte Pass, Thredbo, Selwyn and Perisher Range (POM, p.124), which are used in the winter by winter sport recreationists and also in summer as a base for activities such as sightseeing and bush walking. In creating these resorts large areas of natural vegetation have been cleared to make way for buildings, roads, and other facilities. A major impact of resorts in the area is the pollution they create. The resorts attract large amounts of people to the area which has created a lot of noise, and light pollution in these areas. The resorts also create a lot of human waste which is treated in the area. Nearby waterways have been observed to have slightly increased nutrient levels downstream of the resorts, and downstream of sewage treatment facilities the nutrients of the waterways were greatly increased (Chapman, & Simmons, 1990, p.280). The result of nutrient increases in waterways due to pollution is the increase in algal accumulation (Chapman, & Simmons, 1990, p.288).
Cycling
The most popular form of cycling the park is mountain biking (POM, p.130) and has many trails including in the Cascade sub alpine area, as shown in image 3. The main impact of mountain biking on the environment is erosion, which is especially noticeable on steep trails and during wet conditions, the destruction of vegetation when creating tracks, and the scarring of rock faces and boulders (POM, p.131). To manage these impacts, cycling is prohibited on roads and managed trails, and trails are closed during wetter months to minimize the erosion (POM, p.132).
Resort-based Activities
The Kosciuszko region is home to a number of resorts Charlotte Pass, Thredbo, Selwyn and Perisher Range (POM, p.124), which are used in the winter by winter sport recreationists and also in summer as a base for activities such as sightseeing and bush walking. In creating these resorts large areas of natural vegetation have been cleared to make way for buildings, roads, and other facilities. A major impact of resorts in the area is the pollution they create. The resorts attract large amounts of people to the area which has created a lot of noise, and light pollution in these areas. The resorts also create a lot of human waste which is treated in the area. Nearby waterways have been observed to have slightly increased nutrient levels downstream of the resorts, and downstream of sewage treatment facilities the nutrients of the waterways were greatly increased (Chapman, & Simmons, 1990, p.280). The result of nutrient increases in waterways due to pollution is the increase in algal accumulation (Chapman, & Simmons, 1990, p.288).
Cycling
The most popular form of cycling the park is mountain biking (POM, p.130) and has many trails including in the Cascade sub alpine area, as shown in image 3. The main impact of mountain biking on the environment is erosion, which is especially noticeable on steep trails and during wet conditions, the destruction of vegetation when creating tracks, and the scarring of rock faces and boulders (POM, p.131). To manage these impacts, cycling is prohibited on roads and managed trails, and trails are closed during wetter months to minimize the erosion (POM, p.132).
Image 3. Cascade to Pinch Trail (Tourism Snowy Mountains, 2016)
Climbing and Abseiling
Although there is not a lot of climbing locations in the region there are a few smaller areas which cause subsequent impact on the environment. The most obvious and visual impact of climbing is the implementation of fixed protection such as bolts in the rock (POM, p.133). Other impacts include chalk marks and wearing on the rock, and trampling impacts caused by approaching the rock (POM, p.133).
References
Australian Alps Cooperative Management Program. (2006). 2006 Plan of Management - Kosciuszko National Park. Sydney South. Department of Environment and Conservation NSW
Australian Alps National Parks. (2012). Recreation and Tourism in the Australian Alps. Canberra. Australian Government
Chapman, J., & Simmons, C. (1990). The effects of sewage on alpine streams in Kosciusko National Park, NSW. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 14(2), 275-295.
Edwards, I. (1977). The Ecological Impact of Pedestrian Traffic on Alpine Vegetation in Kosciusko National Park. Australian Forestry, 40(2), 108-120.
Growcock, A. J. W. (2006). Impacts of Camping and Trampling on Australian Alpine and Subalpine Vegetation and Soils.
Hill, W & Pickering, P. (2006). Vegetation associated with different walking track types in the Kosciuszko alpine area, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 78(1), 24-34.
Pickering, C., & Johnston, S. (2003). Nature-based tourism, environment and land management. UK: CABI Publishing.
Although there is not a lot of climbing locations in the region there are a few smaller areas which cause subsequent impact on the environment. The most obvious and visual impact of climbing is the implementation of fixed protection such as bolts in the rock (POM, p.133). Other impacts include chalk marks and wearing on the rock, and trampling impacts caused by approaching the rock (POM, p.133).
References
Australian Alps Cooperative Management Program. (2006). 2006 Plan of Management - Kosciuszko National Park. Sydney South. Department of Environment and Conservation NSW
Australian Alps National Parks. (2012). Recreation and Tourism in the Australian Alps. Canberra. Australian Government
Chapman, J., & Simmons, C. (1990). The effects of sewage on alpine streams in Kosciusko National Park, NSW. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 14(2), 275-295.
Edwards, I. (1977). The Ecological Impact of Pedestrian Traffic on Alpine Vegetation in Kosciusko National Park. Australian Forestry, 40(2), 108-120.
Growcock, A. J. W. (2006). Impacts of Camping and Trampling on Australian Alpine and Subalpine Vegetation and Soils.
Hill, W & Pickering, P. (2006). Vegetation associated with different walking track types in the Kosciuszko alpine area, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 78(1), 24-34.
Pickering, C., & Johnston, S. (2003). Nature-based tourism, environment and land management. UK: CABI Publishing.
Image References
Tourism Snowy Mountains. (2016). Cascade to Pinch Trail [Image]. Cascade to Pinch Trail. Retrieved from http://snowymountains.com.au/see-and-do/cascade-to-pinch-trail.
WildWalks. (2017). Looking towards the confluence of Club Lake Creek and the Snowy River [Image]. Main Range Walk – Charlotte Pass to Mount Kosciuszko. Retrieved from http://www.wildwalks.com/bushwalking-and-hiking-in-nsw/kosciuszko-np-south/main-range-walk-charlotte-pass-to-mount-kosciuszko.html
WildWalks. (2017). Main Range track [Image]. Main Range Walk – Charlotte Pass to Mount Kosciuszko. Retrieved from http://www.wildwalks.com/bushwalking-and-hiking-in-nsw/kosciuszko-np-south/main-range-walk-charlotte-pass-to-mount-kosciuszko.html
Tourism Snowy Mountains. (2016). Cascade to Pinch Trail [Image]. Cascade to Pinch Trail. Retrieved from http://snowymountains.com.au/see-and-do/cascade-to-pinch-trail.
WildWalks. (2017). Looking towards the confluence of Club Lake Creek and the Snowy River [Image]. Main Range Walk – Charlotte Pass to Mount Kosciuszko. Retrieved from http://www.wildwalks.com/bushwalking-and-hiking-in-nsw/kosciuszko-np-south/main-range-walk-charlotte-pass-to-mount-kosciuszko.html
WildWalks. (2017). Main Range track [Image]. Main Range Walk – Charlotte Pass to Mount Kosciuszko. Retrieved from http://www.wildwalks.com/bushwalking-and-hiking-in-nsw/kosciuszko-np-south/main-range-walk-charlotte-pass-to-mount-kosciuszko.html